Physics history

As noted below, the means used to understand the behavior of natural phenomena and their effects evolved from philosophy, progressively replaced by natural philosophy then natural science, to eventually arrive at the modern conception of physics.
Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during the Archaic period, (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when Pre-Socratic philosophers like Thalesrefused supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause. They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment,for example atomism.
Natural science was developed in China, India and in Islamic caliphates, between the 4th and 10th century BCE.Quantitative descriptions became popular among physicists and astronomers, for example Archimedes in the domains of mechanics, statics and hydrostatics. Experimental physics had its debuts with experimentation concerning statics by medieval Muslim physicists like al-Biruni and Alhazen.
Classical physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used these experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics.Kepler, Galileo and more specifically Newton discovered and unified the different laws of motion.During the industrial revolution, as energy needs increased, so did research, which led to the discovery of new laws inthermodynamics, chemistry and electromagnetics.

Physics

Physics  is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy.
Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologiesthat arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding ofelectromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

Physics Figures

physics

Death In biology

After death the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle. Animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger.Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles.
Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be decomposed fully, however. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example.

Natural selection

Contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection. It is considered that organisms lessadapted to their environment are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one.

Extinction

Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although thecapacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species’ potential rangemay be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where species presumed extinct abruptly “reappear” (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process ofspeciation, an aspect of evolution. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche – and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition.

Evolution of ageing

Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (a notable exception being hydra, which may be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes.

Death and Life extension

Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer, or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.
Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as “biomedical gerontologists”. They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called “life extensionists” or “longevists”. The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed.

Society and culture

Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as theafterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice, however, as inTibet for instance the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one’s spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet.Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay.
Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceasedestate and the issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation.
Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage,treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery andsodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one’s religion. In manyretentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the worldcourts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.
Death in warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutinypunishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers anddeath notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the supposed increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts.
Suicide in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as theGrim Reaper, Azrael and Father Time.

Location

Before about 1930, most people died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors makinghouse calls. By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital.By the start of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution.The shift away from dying at home, towards dying in a professionalized medical environment, has been termed the “Invisible Death”.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death

Death Causes

The leading cause of death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes of death in developed countries areatherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. These conditions cause loss ofhomeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and othertissues. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed. Home deaths, once commonplace, are now rare in the developed world.
In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.7 million people in 2004.Malaria causes about 400–900 million cases of fever and 1–3 million deaths annually.AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025.
According to Jean Ziegler, who was the United Nations Special reporter on the Right to Food from 2000 to March 2008, mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.
Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, a WHO Report warned.
Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.

Autopsy

An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person’s death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.
Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices.
A “necropsy” is an older term for a postmortem examination, unregulated, and not always a medical procedure. In modern times the term is more often used in the postmortem examination of the corpses of animals.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death

Death Causes Figures

Death Diagnosis

Problems of definition

The concept of death is a key to human understanding of the phenomenon.There are many scientific approaches to the concept. For example, brain death, as practiced in medical science, defines death as a point in time at which brain activity ceases. One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death would seem to refer to the moment at which life ends. However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic because there is little consensus over how to define life. It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died. One of the notable flaws in this approach, however, is that there are many organisms which are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled organisms). Another problem with this approach is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. This general problem of defining death applies to the particular challenge of defining death in the context of medicine.
Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of something.In this context “death” describes merely the state where something has ceased, for example, life. Thus, the definition of “life” simultaneously defines death.
Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human’s death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation ofheartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.
Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to “brain death” or “biological death” to define a person as being clinically dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference.
However, the category of “brain death” is seen by some scholars to be problematic. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: “By the late 1990s, however, the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant “brain-dead” women).”
Those people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss ofcognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone given current and foreseeable medical technology. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death – irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex – has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the Terri Schiavo case brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.
Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions.
In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.

Legal

In the United States, a person is dead by law if a Statement of Death or Death certificate is approved by a licensed medical practitioner. Various legal consequences follow death, including the removal from the person of what in legal terminology is called personhood.
The possession of brain activities, or capability to resume brain activity, is a necessary condition to legal personhood in the United States. “It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices.

Misdiagnosed

There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then “coming back to life”, sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when embalming procedures are about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public’s fear of being mistakenly buried alive,and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse’s mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the rectum. Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although others estimated the figure to be closer to 800.
In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. This “diving response”, in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.
As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of information theoretical death has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of cryonics.
There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success. In science fiction scenarioswhere such technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from reversible death.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death

Death Diagnosis figure

Death Diagnosis

Death

Death is the term used to describe the cessation of all biological functions that sustain aliving organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation,malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury. All known organisms inevitably experience death. Bodies of living organisms begin to decomposeshortly after death.
In human societies, the nature of death has for millennia been a concern of the world’sreligious traditions and of philosophical enquiry. This may include a belief in some kind ofresurrection (common in Abrahamic religions), reincarnation (common in Dharmic religions) or that consciousness ceases to exist (common among atheists).
Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning or funeral practices. The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interredwhole or cremated, though among the world’s cultures there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal.

Etymology

The word death comes from Old English deað, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauþaz (reconstructed by etymological analysis). This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the ‘Process, act, condition of dying’.

Associated terms

The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms for death. When a person has died, it is also said he has passed away,passed on, or expired, among numerous other socially accepted, religiously-specific, slang, and irreverent terms. Bereft of life, the dead person is then a corpse, cadaver, a body, a set of remains, and finally a skeleton. The terms carrion and carcass can also be used, though these more often connote the remains of non-human animals. As a polite reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of “decease”, as in the deceased; the noun form is decedent. The ashes left after a cremation are sometimes referred to by the neologism cremains, a portmanteau of “cremation” and “remains”.

Senescence

Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from senescence. The only known exception is the jellyfish Turritopsis nutricula, thought to be, in effect, immortal. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and homicide. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day.
Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible.Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Paradoxically, as scientific knowledge and medicineadvance, a precise medical definition of death becomes more problematic.

Signs of death

Signs of death or strong indications that an animal is no longer alive are:

• Cessation of breathing
• Cardiac arrest (No pulse)
• Pallor mortis, paleness which happens in the 15–120 minutes after death
• Livor mortis, a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body
• Algor mortis, the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature
• Rigor mortis, the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate
• Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor.

Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death

Death figures

Death

Death

Death

Eyes anatomy for 3d

Your eyes are working from the moment you wake up to the moment you go to sleep. Your eyes take in an enormous amount of information about the world around you – shapes, colors, movements, and more. They then send the information to your brain, where it’s processed, so the brain knows what’s going on outside of your body.
The eye is a very complex organ that is approximately 1 inch (2.54 cm) wide, 1 inch deep and 0.9 inches (2.3 cm) tall. Following are explanations for some of the various parts of the eye:

Cornea:

The transparent front “window” of the eye that covers the iris and pupil, and provides most of the eye’s optical power.

Pupil:

The variable-sized black circular opening in the center of the iris, the pupil regulates the amount of light that enters the eye.

Iris:

The colored portion of your eye that surrounds the pupil. This expands and contracts, allowing light to enter through the pupil.

Lens:

The transparent, biconvex lens of the eye helps bring rays of light to focus on the retina.

Vitreous:

The clear, jelly-like substance that fills the rear cavity of your eyeball. The vitreous takes up two-thirds of your eyeball.

Aqueous humor:

This is a thin, watery substance that fills the front part of the eye and gives your eye its form. It fills the area between the lens and the cornea. It is continuously produced by the ciliary body, and gives nourishment to the lens and the cornea.

Macula:

The small, specialized central area of the retina, the macula is responsible for acute central vision.

Retina:

The lining of the rear two-thirds of the eye, the retina converts images from the eye’s optical system into electrical impulses sent along the optic nerve to the brain.

Optic nerve:

A bundle of nerve fibers that carry impulses for sight from the retina to the brain.
Article Source:-http://www.optos.com/en-us/Patients/Healthy-sight/Eye-anatomy/

Eyes anatomy for 3d

Eyes anatomy for 3d

Eyes anatomy for 3d

Computational evolutionary biology

Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways; it has enabled researchers to:

• trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone,
• more recently, compare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication,horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation,
• build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time
• track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms

Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex tree of life.
The area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are not necessarily related.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics#Computational_evolutionary_biology

Computational evolutionary biology Figures

Computational evolutionary biology

 

Biological anthropology Branches

The nomenclature of the field is not exact: the relevant subdivision of the American Anthropological Association is the Biological Anthropology Section while the principal professional organization is the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. The term “biological anthropology” emerged with the rise of genetics and incorporatesgenetic markers as well as primate ethology.

• Paleoanthropology, the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, studying hominid fossil evidence and dating to determine matters such as the time and manner in which the mandible evolved, the effect of nature and environment on bipedality or the use of opposable thumb, with hominid classification and the individual naming of the proposed species and their place in primatology, the study of primates. Paleopathology studies the traces of disease and injury in ancient human skeletons.

• Human behavioral ecology, the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives, (see behavioral ecology). Human adaptation, the study of human adaptive responses (physiologic, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses and variation.

• Human biology, an interdisciplinary field of biology, biological anthropology, nutrition and medicine, concentrates upon international, population-level perspectives on health, evolution, adaptation and population genetics.

• Human osteology, the study of human bones.

• Paleopathology, the study of disease in antiquity. This study focuses not only on pathogenic conditions observable in bones or mummified soft tissue, but also on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or the morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived biomechanic stress.

• Forensic anthropology, the application of osteology, paleopathology, archaeology, and other anthropological techniques for the identification of modern human remains or the reconstruction of events surrounding a person’s death.

Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropology#Branches

Biological anthropology Branches Figures

Biological anthropology Branches

Biological anthropology fields

Human biology

Human biology is an interdisciplinary academic field of biology, biological anthropology, nutrition and medicinewhich focuses on humans; it is closely related to primate biology, and a number of other fields.

Biomedical anthropology

Biomedical anthropology is a subfield of anthropology, predominantly found in U.S. academic and public health settings, that incorporates perspectives from the biological and medical anthropology subfields. In contrast to much of medical anthropology, it does not generally take a critical approach to biomedicine and Western medicine. Instead, it seeks to improve medical practice and biomedical science through theholistic integration of cross-cultural or biocultural, behavioral, and epidemiological perspectives on health. As an academic discipline, biomedical anthropology is closely related to human biology.
Currently, the only accredited degree program in biomedical anthropology is at Binghamton University . Other anthropology departments, such as that of the University of Washington , offer biomedical tracks within more traditional biological or biocultural anthropology programs.

Typology

Typology in anthropology is the categorization of the human species by physical traits that are readily observable from a distance such as head shape, skin color, hair form, body build and stature. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries anthropologists used a typological model to divide people from different ethnic regions into races, (e.g. the Negroid race, the Caucasoid race, the Mongoloid race, the Australoid race, and the Capoid race which was the racial classification system as defined in 1962 by Carleton S. Coon).
The typological model was built on the assumption that humans can be assigned to a race based on similar physical traits. However, author Dennis O’Neil says the typological model in anthropology is now thoroughly discredited. Current mainstream thinking is that the morphological traits are due to simple variations in specific regions, and are the effect of climatic selective pressures. This debate is covered in more detail in the article on race.

Somatotypes

Somatotypology is the study of somatotypes or constitutional types. The objective is to produce a classification system that enables an observer to make determinations of the susceptibiity of a person of a given type to physical or psychological diseases or disease generally. The Carus and Kretschmer typologies are examples as well as Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality.

Racial mapping

Racial Mapping is the use of cartography to identify and situate racial groups using maps to highlight, perpetuate, and naturalize the differences of race through both literal and metaphorical means, mapmakers create a common knowledge by displaying specific data as representative the real world, and construct racial identity by framing, situating, and defining what race is.
As a result, there is a long tradition of cartography being used as a tool to support social Darwinism, physical anthropology, and evolution theories, which seek to promote specific people as superior to others.
Racism, as it is understood today in western thought, originates in the late 15th century as an expression of European superiority.However, the basis for racial mapping, at least in the western world, goes back to the Hellenistic tradition of mapping, where exotic “other” people were purported to live in far off lands. These “others” were usually based upon the writings of Herodotus, and later Greek cartographers spatially situated these groups in their maps. The use of maps to identify otherness was also present Medieval Europe through the use of mappaemundi. These maps displayed “monstrous races” along the periphery to denote the separation between the settled (Europe) and the unknown. While these old maps are originally seen as representation of Christian proselytizing influence, they also exude an ideal of European supremacy. European mapmakers continued this tradition into the colonial era, using the maps to replaceindigenous ideas of identity and spatial distribution. These maps, and others, were used to legitimize European imperialism through the use of racial delineation. Europeans were bringing their supposedly superior race, and the knowledge that went with that, to the world through their empires, and those empires were situated along a spatial understanding made possible through maps.
Racial ideology is not to be found entirely in maps of colonialization, it is also seen within the biopolitics of the early 19th century with the rise of the “population” as a unit of analysis, and a governmental concern with health and crime that led attempts to understand, and categorize, the population. The effects of grouping individuals into populations and having identities for the population, as opposed to the individual, presents the ability of a government to categorize people based upon knowledge. Many times this knowledge, and the categorization was done using cartography. Following the end of World War I, many of Europe’s borders were redrawn, often influenced by racial and eugenic ideologies. The decision behind this was that, “…territories remain stable and peace be guaranteed,”. The AGSassisted in the redrawing of Europe’s map through the project known as the Inquiry, and in doing so helped to determine what the territory and identity of people in Europe would be. Consequently, the redrawing of Europe’s map after World War I was directly influenced by the knowledge of racial purity.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropology
Biological anthropology fields figures

Biological anthropology

Biological anthropology

Bioinformatics Sequence analysis

Since the Phage Φ-X174 was sequenced in 1977, the DNA sequences of thousands of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. This sequence information is analyzed to determine genes that encode polypeptides (proteins), RNA genes, regulatory sequences, structural motifs, and repetitive sequences. A comparison of genes within a species or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of molecular systematics to construct phylogenetic trees). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, computer programs such as BLAST are used daily to search sequences from more than 260 000 organisms, containing over 190 billion nucleotides. These programs can compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this sequence alignment is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called shotgun sequencing technique (which was used, for example, by The Institute for Genomic Research to sequence the first bacterial genome, Haemophilus influenzae) does not produce entire chromosomes. Instead it generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments (ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned properly by a genome assembly program, can be used to reconstruct the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. For a genome as large as the human genome, it may take many days of CPU time on large-memory, multiprocessor computers to assemble the fragments, and the resulting assembly will usually contain numerous gaps that have to be filled in later. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research.
Another aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is annotation. This involves computational gene finding to search for protein-coding genes, RNA genes, and other functional sequences within a genome. Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are part of genes. Within the genomes of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose. This so-called junk DNA may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and proteome projects — for example, in the use of DNA sequences for protein identification.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics#Sequence_analysis

Bioinformatics Sequence analysis Figures

Bioinformatics Sequence analysis

Bioinformatics Sequence analysis

Bioinformatics Genome annotation

In the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Dr. Owen White, who was part of the team at The Institute for Genomic Research that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes. Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics#Genome_annotation

Bioinformatics Genome annotation figure:-

Genome annotation

Branches of zoology

Although the study of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the start of the nineteenth century. SinceHunter and Cuvier, comparative anatomical study has been associated with morphography shapins the modern areas of zoological investigation: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, teratology and ethology. Modern zoology first arose in German and British universities. In Britain, Thomas Henry Huxley was a prominent figure. His ideas were centered on themorphology of animals. Many consider him the greatest comparative anatomist of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Similar to Hunter, his courses were composed of lectures and laboratory practical classes in contrast the previous format of lectures only. This system became widely spread.
Gradually zoology expanded beyond Huxley’s comparative anatomy to include the following sub-disciplines:

• Zoography, also known as descriptive zoology, describes animals and their habitats.
• Comparative anatomy studies the structure of animals.
• Animal physiology
• Behavioral ecology
• Ethology is the study of animal behavior.
• The various taxonomically oriented disciplines such as mammalogy, herpetology, ornithology and entomology identify and classifyspecies and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups.

Related fields:

• Evolutionary biology: Development of both animals and plants is considered in the articles on evolution, population genetics, heredity,variation, Mendelism, reproduction.
• Molecular Biology studies the common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants
• Palaeontology
• Systematics, cladistics, phylogenetics, phylogeography, biogeography and taxonomy classify and group species via common descent and regional associations.

Article source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology

zoology Figures

zoology

Human anatomy study

Human anatomy, including gross human anatomy and histology, is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body.
Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists,physiotherapists, occupational therapists, nurses, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope.
Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray’s Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology.
Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.
Article source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy

Human anatomy study fugures
Human anatomy study

Human anatomy

Anatomy

Anatomy  is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy), and plant anatomy(phytotomy). In some of its facets anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in evolution.

Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy (or macroscopic anatomy) and microscopicanatomy.Gross anatomy is the study of anatomical structures that can, when suitably presented or dissected, be seen by unaided vision with the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures on a microscopic scale. It includeshistology (the study of tissues), and cytology (the study of cells). The terms microanatomy and histology are also sometimes used synonymously (in which case the distinction between histology and cell biology isn’t strictly made as described here).

The history of anatomy has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection ofcadavers (dead human bodies) to technologically complex techniques developed in the 20th century including X-ray, ultrasound, and MRI.

Anatomy should not be confused with anatomical pathology (also called morbid anatomy or histopathology), which is the study of the gross and microscopic appearances of diseased organs.

Article source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy

Anatomy figures

Anatomy

Anatomy image

Biological anthropology

Biological anthropology (also known as bioanthropology and physical anthropology) is that branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human species. It plays an important part in paleoanthropology (the study of human origins) and in forensic anthropology (the analysis and identification of human remains for legal purposes). It draws upon humananthropometrics (body measurements), human genetics (molecular anthropology) and humanosteology (the study of bones) and includes neuroanthropology, the study of human brain evolution, and of culture as neurological adaptation to environment.
In two centuries biological anthropology has been involved in a range of controversies. The quest for human origins was accompanied by the evolution debate and various racial theories. The nature and nurture debate became a political battleground. There have been various attempts to correlate human physique with psychological traits such as intelligence, criminality and personality type, many of which proved themselves mistaken and are now obsolete.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropology

Biological anthropology figure

Biological anthropology

Biological anthropology

Biological anthropology images

Biological anthropology

Anthropology Overview

In the United States, anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-fields, each with additional branches: biological or physical anthropology, social anthropology or cultural anthropology, archaeology and anthropological linguistics. These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.
Biological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.
Cultural anthropology is also called socio-cultural anthropology or social anthropology (especially in the United Kingdom). It is the study of culture, and is based mainly on ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and a product of research, namely a monograph or book. Ethnography is a grounded, inductive method that heavily relies on participant-observation. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emicpoint of view, which would otherwise be unattainable by simply reading from a book. In some European countries, all cultural anthropology is known as ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in 1783).
The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of cultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Cultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology).
Archaeology is the study of human material culture, including both artifacts (older pieces of human culture) carefully gathered in situ, museum pieces and modern garbage. Archaeologists work closely with biological anthropologists, art historians, physics laboratories (for dating), and museums. They are charged with preserving the results of their excavations and are often found in museums. The field studies of archaeologists are associated with excavation of layers of ancient sites, commonly called “digs.”
Archaeologists subdivide time into cultural periods based on long-lasting artifacts: the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, the Bronze Age, which are further subdivided according to artifact traditions and culture region, such as the Oldowan or the Gravettian. In this way, archaeologists provide a vast frame of reference for the places human beings have resided, their ways of making a living, and their demographics. Archaeologists also investigate nutrition, symbolization, art, systems of writing, and other physical remnants of human cultural activity.
Linguistic anthropology (also called anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics,pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.
Linguistic anthropology is divided into its own sub-fields: descriptive linguistics the construction of grammars and lexicons for unstudied languages; historical linguistics, including the reconstruction of past languages, from which our current languages have descended;ethnolinguistics, the study of the relationship between language and culture, and sociolinguistics, the study of the social functions of language. Anthropological linguistics is also concerned with the evolution of the parts of the brain that deal with language.
Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of Anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting,exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.
Because of the holistic nature of anthropological research, all branches ofanthropology have widespread practical application in diverse fields. This is known as applied anthropology. Thus military expeditions employ anthropologists to discern strategic cultural footholds; marketing professionals employ anthropology to determine propitious placement of advertising; and humanitarian agencies depend on anthropological insights as means to fight poverty. Examples of applied anthropology are ubiquitous.
Focused in a positive light, Anthropology is one of the few places where humanities, social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one another. As such,anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such ascognitive science,global studies, and various ethnic studies.
Article source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology

Anthropology Overview figures

Human anatomy

Generally, physicians, dentists, physiotherapists, nurses, paramedics, radiographers, and students of certainbiological sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures, and tutorials. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical and dental students generally also learn anatomy with practical experience of dissectionand inspection of cadavers (dead human bodies). A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required for allmedical doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such ashistopathology and radiology.
Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomytextbook,Gray’s Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format,in line with modern teaching.

Human Anatomy in arts

Gross anatomy has become a key part of visual arts. Basic concepts of how muscles and bones function and deform with movement is key to drawing, painting or animating a human figure. Many books such as “ Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form”, are written as a guide to drawing the human body anatomically correctly. Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve his art through a better understanding of human anatomy. In the process he advanced both human anatomy and its representation in art.
Article Source:-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_anatomy

HUMAN ANATOMY FIGURES

Human anatomy

Selecting human anatomy 3d models

Can be represented in the human anatomy with the 3D model be daunting for many of the 3D models even experienced. 3D models are used every day to bring in thousands of animations in life. It is also used to demonstrate the dynamics of penetration of surgical operations or plans to build an educational program for health education professionalsabout medicine or medical device.
When looking to begin the process of modeling in the science of human anatomy 3D, it is necessary to understand what are the organs of the body and can be obtained thosethat using a 3D model of the existing stocks.
A typical human anatomy 3D model contains one or all of the major systems, and will be organized if done correctly and accordingly, as follows:
And skeletal muscle: in other words this is “the muscles and skeletons,” and anything else that allows us to move our bodies, and also provides us with significant protection and structural support for the soft tissue and other devices. These include devices, such as bone, muscle, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Also, if you are planning to rig a character or a 3D model of the people, it is important that you are familiar with the dynamics of the movement and the movement of rights, in particular the system and skeletal muscle.

Nervous system: The nervous system, 3D models can be very complex because of the complexity inherent in our nervous system. It includes a network of nerves and the brain, and spinal cord. And it works all over the whole body. Nerves and spinal cord collection, transport and processing of information with the brain.
Digestive system: our digestive system has the important function of processing food for energy, removing waste from our bodies. The main organs that are involved in doing so include the stomach, esophagus, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestine, rectum and anus.
Endocrinology: will be grouped most of the 3D models that make up the endocrine system of glands and can include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, thyroid, and adrenal glands, which allows important signals and communication within the body through hormones.
Integumentary: Normally, I do not consider the devices that make up the integumentary system or thought of as the “hardware”, although it protects the body from damage. It includes our skin (the largest user), and our hair, and nails.

Lymphatic: lymphatic organs include the spleen, appendix, tonsils, bone marrow, thymus, adenoids, lymph nodes, and patches of Bayer. Lymphatic transfer of lymph between tissues and the bloodstream. A 3D model of the human anatomy and include some if not all of the devices that make up the lymphatic system, which is a network of the body’s systems, channels, and tissues that filter harmful substances out of the fluid that surrounds all of the tissues of the body.
Urinary system: We have a urinary system includes all hardware and pipes, muscles and nerves that work together to create and urine, and storage, and implementation of our bodies. The 3D model of the urinary system include kidney 2.2 ureter, bladder, urethra, and penis in males.
Immune system: Our immune system plays a very important role in protecting us from diseases. 3D models help visualize this important function. This group includes 3D models of the lymphatic vessels we have, and lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, and correction Bayer, and spleen. It performs this important function by identifying and killing pathogens that come in contact, or enter our body or grow within the body, such as cancer cells.
Reproductive: Our system allows us to reproductive reproduction. Male reproductive organs will that will be a 3D model of the male penis and include the testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles and prostate. A 3D model of female anatomy and include all of the principal organs of the female reproductive such as the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.

Respiratory system: We have a respiratory system includes the hardware used in breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. 3D models of human anatomy often group these together in or out by parts of the body, such as members of the upper body and lower body organs.
If you go with a 3D model very detailed and realistic human anatomy, then you can expect the level of many of the details, where he studied human anatomy and displayed as such. Probably will be your animation or visualization does not need all the details, but a lot of details in a particular area and just a silhouette for the rest of the human body.
Keep in mind that the stock or even a custom 3D model of human anatomy can significantly enhance the perceptions of your 3D and animation, while also saving you a lot of time in 3D modeling and expenses. So, before you proceed with the 3D model in particular it is best to always check the specifications and description of it, ask questions, download the presentations, and verified for compatibility with other 3D modeling programs, and so forth.